Hannah Arendt (October 14, 1906 – December 4, 1975) can be regarded as one of the leading critics of Totalitarianism. She was a German philosopher and politician whose theories on the structure of society are important to the present day. In one of her numerous books entitled, The Origins of Totalitarianism which was published in 1951 she outlines the ways in which Totalitarianism takes place and what effects it has on society.
Hannah Arendt speaking about her
political theories
She argues that each individual has their own unique personality, therefore it is impossible to predict what people will do. Everything is possible so people strive to seek as much power as they can as it is unlimited, however this power comes at a huge price as humanity will be destroyed. The methods by which leaders such as Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin gained this power and control was to break down people's individuality using state terror and ideology such as Marxism or Communism. Terror is the most important method as it prevents the masses from rebelling against the government and you are punished for wrong thoughts or appearance. (for example target of the Jews and the master race of blonde hair blue eyed people during the Nazi regime). The combination of terror and ideology breaks down society as there are no laws or authority and people lose their human rights. This idea of giving up rights is similar to the theories of Thomas Hobbes who believed that society will always need a ruler to maintain law and order but consequently humans lose their human rights. People lose their individuality through Ideology but this must be embraced and celebrated and it is the masses who will fuel this ideology as they are weak and vulnerable. Finally,Arendt believed that there will never be an end to Totalitarianism as it is one endless loop of destruction and there will always be groups in society than can be targeted such as the Jews and the disabled.
Arendt was so interested in the ideas of Totalitarianism that she published another book entitled Eichmann in Jerusalem in 1968which was based around a true story she witnessed in Argentina. Adolf Eichmann was a Nazi fugitive during the Holocaust in the Second World War and was captured by Israeli Secret Service Agents in 1960. He was tried for his crimes against humanity in Jerusalem to show the world that the Holocaust was never forgotten and Arendt sat in the courtroom listening to the trial. Eichmann was sentenced to death for his part in the Holocaust but he defended himself stating that he was simply a law abiding citizen. Arendt believed that his crime was not his status as a Nazi but an inability to think for himself, he simply obeyed the orders of his officers without questioning them. As human beings we make a judgement based on what we believe and in the case of Eichmann he just didn't think about his actions. Everyone should rely on their own personal judgements not what the law states and must be prepared to break laws if it is necessary. Below is a video of a newsreel which summarises Eichmann's trial
In the seminar the group discussed the monetary policy and how Keynesian economics still have a large relevance today. The Central Bank controls the interest rates on mortgages and loans which is currently 0.5%, the same rate as it was in the 1930’s following the Great Depression.The best way to boost an economy is to print money and give it to the poor as they spent it on goods, going to the pub and having a generally jolly good time. It is unwise to give it to the rich as they save money which lies stagnant in an account; therefore it is not circulating around the economy. The way to solve this problem is to tax the rich in order to give money to the poor to spend quickly so that the economy begins to pick up.
This is the case in Britain today where the wealthy people of society pay a vast sum of money each year in taxes to the government, which ends up being spent on benefits to help the poor. Referring back to Keynes, the government is spending large sums of money on wars such as Afghanistan and Iraq. However this is not a good time to fight a war as Britain is in a state of economic decline with record figures of unemployment and people claiming benefits. As a group we discussed how it is a bad idea to fight a war at this time with the world economy on the verge of collapse and David Cameron should end this war as soon as possible to save money and more importantly lives.
The next lecture focused around classic economics and the theories of John Maynard Keynes, who can be regarded as a modern economist as his works were viewed as radical and different. Keynes published a book in 1936 named The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, following the beginning of the Great Depression of the 1930’s.The book outlined why it is demand, not supply, which controls the overall level of economic activity. The General Theory can be summarised in four main points as outlined by Paul Krugman in his introduction.
John Maynard Keynes
( 5 June 1883 – 21 April 1946)
·Economies can and often do suffer from an overall lack of demand, which leads to involuntary unemployment. People are not buying goods; therefore less profit is being made which ultimately leads to job cuts as companies are unable to afford workers.
·The economy’s automatic tendency to correct shortfalls in demand, if it exists at all, operates painfully and slowly.
·Government policies to increase demand, by contrast can reduce unemployment quickly. The solution is to employ a large number of people to build roads and infrastructure.
·Sometimes increasing the money supply won’t be enough to persuade the private sector to spend more, and government spending steps into the breach. The government’s money must be spent on buildings and infrastructure that do not compete with the private sector. The best way to spend money is to have a war as even though this is expensive, countries can gain wealth from resources.
These theories by Keynes are in stark contrast to those of classical economists such as Adam Smith who founded the phrase “hidden hand of the market”. Smith believed that the economic market will do its own thing whether that will be an increase or decrease and the government does not need to intervene. If people have money, they have the choice to spend it on whatever they need or want. Freud argues against this theory as he suggests that when people gain wealth they make irrational choices with their money, eventually spending all of it.
Freud’s theory of irrational decisions can be applied today in the case of Italy. The prime minister, Silvio Berlusconi led the country into a state of enormous debt and corruption by making irrational choices. He asked the Central Bank for a bond in order to borrow a sum of money to help the economy, which the bank agreed to as long as he paid interest on the bond. The bond had no monetary value; it was just a piece of paper that had a sum written on it. However, Italy is corrupt and people are not paying taxes like they should do, so the interest on the bond could not be paid using tax money. The country is unable to pay the interest back to the bank so the interest rates increase even further meaning cuts have to be made in order to pay the larger interest rates. As a result the economy begins to collapse meaning high levels of unemployment as companies cannot afford to employ workers. The economy becomes static as no money is moving around as people cannot afford to buy goods, leaving an even worse situation. Italy is unable to pay the higher interest rates back to the Bank; therefore the Bank refuses to give anymore Bonds to the country. This is known as the Bond Market.
The seminar based around Frege and his philosophy of language helped my understanding of the topic as chapter 5 of Kenny’s book really confused me. The sentences which the group discussed and analysed were “The present King of France is not bald” and “There was nobody on the road”. The first sentence regarding the King of France can appear to be either true or false. Without any knowledge you may think that the sentence is true, but there is no King of France as it is a republic so therefore the statement is false. This is one of the primary laws of logic as we need to have knowledge of an object or person before we can decide whether a statement is correct or incorrect. The sentence “There was nobody on the road” is an incorrect statement as you do not know if there is anybody on the road without looking to see if there is anyone.You would have to use another sentence such as “I can’t see anybody on the road” in order to make a logical sentence. We also discussed how a universal language would have to be created for the study of language as some languages do not have certain words or phrases that other languages do. However there are some problems as languages such as Esperanto have been created to be a universal language but has practically died out as a language as everyone would have to learn the same language which would take time. A better idea would be to make a common language such as English or German the standard language as they have already been established and are spoken across the world.
Plato
From the seminar it was clear that language was an important topic for many philosophers during the 19th century and it was analysed in great depth by people such as Frege and Russell. Language has been analysed for centuries by philosophers including Plato who argued that humans had a perception of an object and if the images all looked the same then we would assume it was the same object. For example if a man saw a chair that had a seat and four legs and then later on saw an armchair then he would assume that the two objects were chairs as they had the same characteristics and appearance. The podcast below gives a good summary of Frege's works on the philosophy of language and is good if you are unsure of any of the concepts. It is 45 minutes long but worth a watch even if you watch a section each day.
The third lecture of the Semester was focused around Sigmund Freud, Friedrich Nietzsche and Karl Marx. These figures can be considered as the founders of modern hermeneutics.Modern hermeneutics focused on the philosophy of language and semiotics, how the meaning of words affects our interpretation of life. Another philosopher who studied hermeneutics was Frege and his works on the philosophy of language are highly regarded to the present day. I will discuss Frege’s theories later on in this blog post.
Nietzsche undermined the theories written by the Enlightenment philosophers as he attempted to find the truth by using subjective epistemology.Epistemology focuses on the nature and scope of knowledge and Nietzsche believed that in life there was no universal truth, just impressions of truths which have a relative value. What may be true for one person is completely false for another as we are all individual and our minds think and perceive in a variety of ways. One example of this is a man has bright green hair, not everyone is society has green hair so it may be true for him but not for his wife lets say. These truths are found within ourselves and not in the physical outside world, which rejects the theories of Enlightenment philosophers such as Newton who believed the world can be understood using science. In addition, Nietzsche suggested that nothing in life is certain and as humans, we are unsure whether we will see a specific object or person more than once in our lives.
Marx has similar theories to those of Nietzsche with regards to the idea of universal truth.He believed that the truth from the oppressed is different to that of the oppressor. Truth is heavily dependent on your perspective of a truth, if you are in the ruling class and you believe that women should be equal to men then that is what is true. Different groups of people think differently to each other and this is known as having different consciousnesses.Similar to Marx, Friedrich Engles presented a theory that truth and systems of morality are subjective and can change over time- they are temporary.The subjective is on a social level, not an individual level and truths vary from one culture to another. For example, cannibalism is illegal and immoral in the UK but is widely celebrated in Africa.
Freud believed that mental unhappiness came from issues within the inner tripartite self and that mankind is on a slow journey to death. Humans copy each other and follow each other like a pack of animals and are born and will die in a state of depression.There have been many criticisms of Freud’s theories by many philosophers including Nietzsche who argues that each human being has an individual will which makes them who they are both physically and mentally. This will is good and society should just be whoever they want to be. The seven deadly sins are virtues and we should all just express ourselves freely and evil is just what we as individuals disapprove of.
Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege
(8 November 1848 – 26 July 1925)
Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege can be considered as the father of semiotics and the philosophy of language and was particularly interested in what words and sentences signified. He suggested that there is a distinction between the reference of an expression and the sense of an expression.The reference of an expression is the object which a word refers to and the sense is how way in which a word presents its meaning. “The morning star is identical with the evening star” is an identity statement as the both the morning and evening star refer to the planet Venus, if a sign is squashed with two names with the same reference then the statement is true.
DVD cover of the operetta
Following on from the lecture the group watched a short operetta named “The Seven Deadly Sins” composed by Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht in 1933. The operetta tells the story of two sisters, Anna I and Anna II. Anna I is the main singing voice and Anna II, the dancer, is heard only infrequently and the two sisters are the same person but have a split personality. Brecht splits the personality of Anna into Anna I, who is the voice of reason, and Anna II who is emotional but acts impulsively.This operetta really captured how Freud’s tripartite self can work on an individual with the ego and the id and how they are in constant conflict with each other. Below is a video of the prologue of the operetta which highlights the conflict between the id and the ego.. enjoy!!
The second seminar of the semester focused around the theories of Sigmund Freud and whether they were still relevant today. The starting point for the discussion was focused around chapter 3 of Anthony Kenny's book, Philosophy of the Modern World. As a group we concluded that Freud was still influential and in our everyday lives we say "Freudian slips" for example a man says to his friend 'Would you like to eat bread and butter, or cake?' and the friend replies: 'Bed and butter please'. After discussing "Freudian slips", Shira asked us our opinions on Freud's theory of the id, ego and superego and whether this theory can be applied today. I think that each human being contains an id, ego and superego as everyone has instincts to do something and our brain tells us whether we should do it and what the consequences are if we carry out that action.
Following this debate, Shira raised an excellent point by saying was Freud a god-like figure and had any other philosophers from history had any ideas that opposed Freud's theories. Freud believed that the three structuress consisting of our id, ego and superego controlled and shaped us as human beings. Whereas Ancient philosophers such as Plato argued that society had a tripartite structure made up of the appetite, spirit, reason which represent appetite/spirit/reason arts of a human body. The appetite part of the structure represents the abdomen which are the workers and labourers. The chest represents the spirit and this is made up of warriors who are strong and brave. The final part of the structure is the reason which is represented by the head and this consists of rulers, Kings and Philosophers who are intelligent, rational and make decisions on behalf of the people. These people were considered to be special and have a God-like presence among society. Therefore, Plato's tripartite self was not solely based around the mind, but also the occupation of people in society, which is very different to Freud's interpretation of a tripartite self which was influenced by thought and expression.
The second lecture of the semester was based around the theories of Sigmund Freud. He was an Austrian neurologist who developed a form of therapy where he accessed the mind of his patients. This therapy later became known as hypnotherapy and is still used as a popular treatment across the world today. Every human being has an unconscious mind which they are unable to control and are not aware of its existence. Freud believed that human beings hide things from themselves and hypnotherapy was a method in which the mind can be accessed to deal with the unconscious mind and this is a key feature in what is known as psychoanalysis.
Freud was an incredibly ambitious theorist who tried to find answers to almost everything in the world. His ideas are still used today as it can be argued that we live in a Freudian world, from time to time we use “Freudian slips” or parapraxes, which are errors in speech, memory, or action which occurs due to an unconscious thought or memory. Freudian slips got their name from Freud’s 1901 book named The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, which analysed a collection of errors which he concluded were accidental errors of the mind. Freud’s ideas came at a time in history where society has strict moral values and directly challenged the ideas of philosophers such as Rene Descartes and John Locke during the enlightenment period.Freud believed, like the majority of modernists that the world cannot be fully understood using science, but it can be analysed using the power of the mind.
In his essay written in 1920 named Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud suggested that the human mind could be divided into three parts called the id, ego, and super-ego which are all at conflict with each other.The id is a group of instincts which aim to gain pleasure and to avoid pain and disregards all consequences for its actions. For example a young child may ask her mother for a toy in a shop but her mother says no. The child will feel upset that she is unable to have the toy and may cry or have a tantrum in order to persuade her mother to buy her the toy thus avoiding pain. The ego is the voice of reason and is in a constant battle with the id and superego in order to make the right decisions about behaviour or thought. When the ego feels threatened by the id and superego, it may use defence mechanisms such as denial and repression. The superego develops through child development, parental rules and through social interaction. It keeps your mind under control and sets targets throughout life, however these targets are often impossible or difficult to achieve. Freud believed that humans are divided within ourselves as we are not at peace with our minds and due to the conflict between the id, ego and superego our personality is confused and we are unable to release our true personality and identity. This battle between the three parts results in repression as humans are afraid to release their powers in case it has negative consequences.
I have found an excellent youtube video giving more detail about Freud's theory of the unconscious mind. Its very informative and well worth a watch.
Freud’s ideas can be viewed as being pessimistic as he portrays a fairly dark and dim picture of humanity and our lives are based around pain for three main reasons.Our bodies physically decay over time causing injury and disease which eventually kills us. Events in our everyday lives cause us to feel pain as they can upset us or make us feel angry such as losing a loved one. Finally, and most importantly interaction with other people can cause humans a degree of pain. Freud believed that human beings were out to hurt each other both physically and emotionally and the way to cope with this pain is to gain access to the Id through hypnotherapy to make the ego stronger and more able to deal with pain.
There has been a lot of controversy surrounding the theories of Freud over the last decades which many theorists claiming that psychoanalysis was vague and there has been no definitive proof that it is successful. It has been argued that the unconscious mind was discovered long before Freud’s theories by the German philosopher, Sir Christopher Riegel during the 18th century who coined the phrase. The 20th century psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, Wilheim Reich argued that human beings were good people but were oppressed by society; therefore they showed negative behaviour and violence. He also believed that sex was the way in which it was possible to measure a person’s happiness, what a man!!
